MASHROOM PRODUCTION

Mushroom spawn production technology





· Introduction

· Methods of spawn preparation

· Pure culture preparation

· Substrate preparation

· Multiplication using mother spawn

· Cares to be taken

· Economics

INTRODUCTION

Mushroom is an interesting modification of fungal form of life. They are non-green fungal plants occurring seasonally in many parts of the world in various habitats ranging from sandy plains to tropic forests and green meadows to roadsides. There are more than 2000 edible species of which only a few have been brought under cultivation on commercial scale. Of these 80 have been grown experimentally, 20 cultivated commercially and 5 are produced on industrial scale throughout the world. The species grown more commonly and having good export potential are, Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom), Volvariella spp. (paddy straw mushroom), Pleurotus spp. (Oyster mushroom).

The word spawn in the mushroom industry means the planting material, which consists of the vegetative body (mycelium) and its substrate. In other words spawn could be regarded as analogues to the seeds of the higher plants.

METHODS OF SPAWN PREPARATION

There are three steps involved in spawn production 1) raising of pure culture, 2) prepatation of master culture / mother spawn and 3) multiplication of spawn.

PURE CULTURE PREPARATION

There are two ways of raising pure culture and they are tissue culture and spore culture. In tissue culture a well grown mushroom with membrane covering the gills is selected and from which a small bit of mushroom from gill portion is taken using forceps and inoculated on PDA or MEA media slants under aseptic condition (PDA – potato dextrose agar, MEA- Malt extract agar are the culture media readily available in the market). The mycelium covers the entire surface in a weeks time and culture becomes ready for further multiplication.



In spore culture method, the spores are collected from well developed fruiting body by ‘spore mapping technique’ and then the spores are inoculated to the PDA or MEA slants as in tissue culture under aseptic condition.

SUBSTRATE PREPARATION

1. select good quality jowar or wheat grains free from pest and moulds.
2. Boil the grains submerged in clean water for 20 – 30 minutes. When the grains become soft, remove and spread evenly on a cotton cloth to drain out the water and cool the grains.
3. Mix 3 percent chalk powder (30g / kg of grain) for adjusting the pH and to keep the grains loose.
4. Fill 250 gms of grain in cleaned and dried glucose bottle of 500ml capacity or polypropylene bags and plug the mouth of the bottle tightly with non absorbent cotton.
5. Sterilize the bottles in autoclave by exposing to 121 c and 15lbs pressure / sq inch for 20 minutes. After cooling transfer the bottles to inoculation chamber.

MULTIPLICATION USING MOTHER SPAWN

1. Always use well grown mother spawn (18-20days old). Stir the spawn using sterilized forceps to get the individual grains with fungal growth.
2. Transfer few grains with mycelial growth into sterilized substrate bottle under aseptic condition and plug it with cotton.
3. Shift the inoculated bottles to spawn running room having temperature range of 25 – 30 c
4. Inspect the bottles regularly and discard contaminated one immediately.
5. Within 15 – 20 days of inoculation mycelial growth covers entire substrate and the spawn is ready for use.

CARES TO BE TAKEN

1. Always keep the inoculation chamber and its surroundings very clean.

2. Switch on UV tube in the inoculation chamber for 30 minutes before inoculation by keeping sterilized substrate, forceps, cultures inside the chamber.

3. Innoculation is always done near the spirit the spirit lamp flame to avoid contamination.

4. The working person should swab his hands and innoculation chamber using alcohol.

5. Spawn should grow fast in the bottles, should be silky white in colour and should never show fluffy growth.

6. All grains should be covered by the mycelial growth and fresh spawn should have mushroom odour.

7. Mother spawn should not be used beyond 3-4 generations as it starts degeneration. Fresh spawn gives higher yield, therefore spawn should never be stored for more than a month.

8. All the bottles must be labeled indicating firms name, species, date of inoculation to know the age and type of spawn.

ECONOMICS

The economics of a spawn unit with the capacity of 100 bottles per day

3.1 Capital investment

a) Non recurring



Particulars


Amount (Rs.)

1


Autoclave


25000=00

2


Laminar flow


25000=00

3


LPG / Electric stove


1500=00

4


Pressure cooker


1500=00

5


Miscellaneous


1500=00




Subtotal


54500=00

b) Recurring expenditure

Sr. No.


Particulars


Qty


Price


Amount

1


Jowar / wheat


5200 kgs


15=00


78000=00

2


Non absorbent cotton


160 x 500 gms


110=00


17600=00

3


Chalk powder


156 kgs


5=00


780=00

4


Electricity


@Rs. 500/ month


6000=00

5


Labour


@ Rs 2100 / month


25200=00

6


Buckets, PP bags and miscellanous


4000=00







Sub total





131580=00

3.2 Cost of production

1


Working expenditure


131580=00

2


Interest on capital investment @ 17% / annum


9625=00

3


Depreciation @ 10% / anum


5450=00




Total


146655=00

Income by selling 27000 @ Rs. 10 / bottle


270000=00

Expenditure


1466500




Net Profit


123345=00

Model Bankable Scheme for Organic Cultivation of Safed Musli

1. Introduction :

Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) is a tuber crop belonging to the family Liliaceae. It is partly a herb with sub-erect lanceolate leaves. There are about 256 species of Chlorophytum and 17 among them are found in India. Among these, Chlorophytum borivilianum has good market both indigenously and globally. It is an annual crop capable of giving good returns to farmers under irrigated conditions. Safed Musli is found growing in thick forests in its natural form. The roots of safed musli is reported to contain 2-15% saponin, which has the medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings. It also helps in correcting gynaecological disorders. There are many other therapeutic uses of safed musli where dried tubers are used as a curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic etc. Because of its medicinal property, safed musli is known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori. Safed musli is naturally grown in the hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It is reported that the annual demand for dried safed musli roots is 500 t in India. The natural source is getting fast depleted necessitating field cultivation of this medicinally important crop.

Chemical fertilisers have played a significant role in Indian agriculture facilitating green revolution and making the country self reliant in crop production. However, concentrated and continuous use of easily soluble chemical fertilisers disturbs soil health, leading to acidification, micro nutrient depletion, soil degradation, reduction in the activity of soil micro flora and fauna, poor crop health and lower crop yields and quality. Besides, use of fertilisers may contribute to environmental risks like increase in global temperature, ground and surface water pollution, etc. In view of this, it is desirable that we may have to return to less resource demanding agricultural practices viewing the gaps in domestic production as also nutrient depletion estimates. In this direction, organic farming offers scope to mitigate the above problems especially to medium and large farmers who can create their own organic manurial resources / do recycling of farm waste. The National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) of Government of India has defined Organic Farming as a " holistic system of farm design and management that seeks to create healthy ecosystem which can achieve sustainable productivity without the use of artificial inputs such as chemical pesticides and fertilizers".

2. International Scenario :

The cropped area under organic farming was 26.4 million ha. with an estimated production of 26 million tonne. The organic market, though growing, is still in a nascent stage and accounts for 1 % of conventional agricultural production and consumption. Almost 92% of the organic industry comprises of farm products and 8% of animal products. Over 95% of organic products are reported to be consumed in developed countries. The major producers and importers of organic products are European Union, United States of America and Japan.

3. National Scenario :

In Indian agriculture, organic manures have been used since Vedic period and Sir Albert Howard, a British agronomist had started organic agriculture way back in 1900. Since then farmers in some parts of India have been practicing it either by default or under compulsion in the absence of resources. According to a survey of IFOAM and Stiftung Oekologie & Landban (SOEL), February 2005 India had about 76,326 ha land under organic management, which is only 0.05% of total agricultural land. According to the survey there were about 5,147 certified organic farms in India.

The Indian organic farming industry is estimated at US $ 20 million and is mostly export oriented. As per APEDA report annually about 6792 t of organic products worth Rs.72 million are exported from India. The data on area and production of Safed Musli both under organic as well non-organic mode is not available. However, Safed Musli is cultivated in most states of the country, the prominent amongst them being Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh etc. Based on agro climatic suitability, Safed Musli can be cultivated in Eastern, Western, Central and Southern Plateau and Hill regions, East and West Coast Plains and Hill regions and Gujarat Plains and Hill regions comprising the states of Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu and Gujarat.

4. Organic farming in Madhya Pradesh :



Madhya Pradesh is one of the fore runners in promotion of organic farming. The State Government has adopted a concept called Bio farming through bio-villages for the promotion of organic farming. Bio-farming is implemented in 1565 villages selected from 313 blocks of 48 districts in the state. It is reported that the message of growing crops through organic resources is spreading from village to village through farmers contact programme.

The survey conducted by the Indian Institute of Soil Science (IISS-ICAR), Bhopal on organic farming in Central Madhya Pradesh revealed that the major crops grown under organic farming are soybean, wheat, lentil, safed musli, maize, pigeon pea, vegetables and sugarcane. The survey also revealed that more number of large and medium farmers are involved in organic farming as compared to small farmers. The average area under organic farming varied from 0.80 ha (with small farmer) to 5.00 ha (with large farmer)

Adoption of organic farming is reported to have a positive correlation with the number of cattle maintained by the farmers, in the state. The large farmers have more cattle and hence more resources for organic manure which facilitates more area under organic farming. Compost or Farm Yard Manure (FYM) is the common source of organic manure used by the farmers, followed by Vermicompost and Narayan Devaraj Pandey (NADEP) compost. Farmers are also using bio-gas slurry, green manure and cow horn manure. Poultry manure, neem cake, karanjee cake and bio-fertilizers like rhizobium, azospirillum, phosphate solubilizing bacteria etc, are the other supplements under off-farm organic sources.

The IISS survey has indicated that the quantum of organic manure applied by the farmers do not have any scientific basis to meet the nutrient requirements of the crops grown. The quantity applied is based on the on-farm availability and the nature of crops grown. However, the periodicity of application is found to be regular, either every season or crop grown under organic farming as against application once in two or three years under conventional farming.

5. Organic Production :



5.1 Climate and Soil

Safed Musli can be grown in hot and subtropical climate. Normally the agroclimatic conditions suitable for potato, onion and garlic are also suitable for safed musli crop. Well drained soils with rich mineral content is ideal for this crop. Hard and acidic soils are to be avoided.

5.2 Propagation

Fingers or tubers are commonly used as planting material. Before planting, the fingers are separated in such a way that each finger has a portion of crown disk attached to it. Seeds can also be used for planting, but for good results fingers are preferred. Tissue culture plantlets can also be used for planting.

5.3 Planting

Being a kharif crop, sowing starts with the onset of monsoon. Planting of fingers is done in beds or ridges depending on the slope and drainage of the soil. Generally fingers are planted at a distance of 35 to 40 cm. About 80,000 fingers weighing 10-12 q are required for planting in one hectare.

5.4 Manuring

Vermicompost, well decomposed organic manure and FYM are the major sources of organic manure. 30 to 35 t/ha of organic manure is applied to take care of the major and micronutrient requirements of the crop and also soil conditioning, biological activity enhancement etc.

5.5 Plant Protection

Diseases like leaf spot, anthracnose and wilt affect this crop. Spraying of neem or chrysanthemum or tobacco extracts (upto permitted levels) or application of Trichoderma etc., are adopted under organic growing. Plant extracts and biological agents are also used for pest control.

5.6 Harvesting

Three to four months after planting, the leaves start yellowing. Subsequently they become dry and fall off and get detached from the tuber/ disc. The moisture level in the soil should be maintained for another two to three months. After this, the skin of tubers mature and it turns dark brown. At this stage the tubers and fingers are dug out.

5.7 Yield

On an average the crop gives a yield of 40-50 q of wet musli tubers per ha. After peeling and drying nearly 20% dry musli (8-10 q) is finally obtained.

6. Processing :

After digging out the musli tubers from the soil, they are thoroughly washed in fresh water. The large and healthy fingers are separated from the tubers and the small ones are kept aside to be used as planting material for the next season. The large fingers are taken for processing. The outer brown skin is peeled off with a stainless steel knife and sun dried for three to four days. Dried fingers are packed in polythene bags and sent to the market.

7. Linkages :

Safed musli is one of the important medicinal crop grown in Madhya Pradesh. Organic growing of safed musli is gaining importance among the farmers, mostly because of the bio-farming and bio-villages concept promoted by the State Government and other support systems made available though National Horticulture Board (NHB), National Horticulture Mission (NHM) etc., for organic interventions.

Safed Musli is mostly marketed locally in Madhya Pradesh. The weekly mandies at Indore (Tuesday), Mansur (Thursday), whole sale buyers at the farm are the major market outlets for safed musli in the State. Besides, the crop is also marketed at Organic India, Lucknow; Baidhyanath, Lucknow/Delhi etc. However, a separate / premium price for organic safed musli is yet to be stabilised in these markets mostly because of lack of awareness and certification for organic systems. With the area expansion under organic safed musli, the situation is likely to improve and incentive price for organic products is expected to be introduced in the markets.

8. Financial Aspects :



8.1 Unit Cost

The unit cost for organic cultivation has been worked out based on the technical and financial parameters indicated in Annexure II. The unit cost for one ha of organic safed musli works out to Rs.518000. The details of the unit cost are given in Annexure I.

8.2 Sale Price & Income

The average domestic price of good quality dry musli is Rs.450/- kg and from one hectare a gross income of Rs.3.60 lakh to 4.50 lakh can be obtained.

8.3. Margin Money

The percentage of margin / down payment to investment cost prescribed is 5, 10 and 15% for small, medium and large farmers respectively. The rest of the investment cost will be provided as bank loan. Margin considered in the present model is 10%.

8.4 Bank Loan

Bank loan of 85 - 95 % shall be available from the financing institution. Bank loan considered in the model is 90%.

8.5 Interest Rate

The rate of interest to be charged to the ultimate borrower would be guided by RBI guidelines issued from time to time. However, the ultimate lending rate has been considered as 12 % for working out the bankability of the model scheme.

8.6 Security

Banks are guided by RBI guidelines issued from time to time in this regard.

8.7 Financial analysis

The detailed economics for one hectare model of Safed Musli has been worked out based on the discussions and data collected on the techno-economic parameters, and the same is given in Annexure III & VI. Some of the important financial indicators are given below :

* NPW : Rs.462837
* BCR : 1.52 : 1
* IRR : > 50%

8.8 Repayment schedule

Based on the cash flow the detailed repayment schedule has been worked out in Annexure V. The bank loan along with accrued interest can be repaid in five years including a grace period of six months.

9. Conclusion :

Based on detailed economics, the one hectare model for organic cultivation of safed musli is found to the technically feasible, financially viable and bankable.

Model Bankable Scheme for Organic Cultivation of Turmeric

1. Introduction

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L), the ancient and sacred spice of India known as ‘Indian saffron’ is an important commercial spice crop grown in India. It is used in diversified forms as a condiment, flavouring and colouring agent and as a principal ingredient in Indian culinary as curry powder. It has anti cancer and anti viral activities and hence finds use in the drug industry and cosmetic industry. 'Kum-kum', popular with every house wife, is also a by-product of turmeric. It finds a place in offerings on religious and ceremonial occasions. A type of starch is also being extracted from a particular type of turmeric. The increasing demand for natural products as food additives makes turmeric as ideal produce as a food colourant.

Turmeric is the dried rhizome of Curcuma longa L., a herbaceous perennial belonging to the family Zingiberaceae and a native of South Asia particularly India. The plant is propagated from rhizomes. The leaves are long, broad, lanceolate and bright green. The flowers are pale yellow and borne on dense spikes. The pseudostems are shorter than leaves. The rhizomes are ready for harvesting in about 7 to 9 months after planting.

2. International scenario

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric in the world. Other major producers are Thailand, other Southeast Asian countries, Central and Latin America and Taiwan. The global production of turmeric is around 11 lakh tonnes per annum. India dominates the world production scenario contributing 78 % followed by China(8%), Myanamr(4%) and Nigeria and Bangala Desh together contributing to 6% of the global production.

India is the global leader in value added products of turmeric and exports. Other major exporters are Thailand, other Southeast Asian countries, Central and Latin America and Taiwan. United Arab Emirates(UAE) is the major importer of turmeric from India accounting for 18% of the total exports followed by United States of America(USA)with 8%. The other leading importers are Bangaladesh, Japan, Sri Lanka, United Kingdom, Malaysia, South Africa, Netherland and Saudi Arabia. All these countries together account for 75% of the world imports and Asian countries are the main suppliers to the entire world. The remaining 25% is met by Europe, North America and Central and Latin American countries. United States of America imports 97% of its turmeric requirement from India and the remaining portion from the Islands of the Pacific and Thailand. Out of the total global production UAE accounts for 18% of the imports, followed by USA(11%), Japan(9%), Srilanka,UK, Malaysia together accounting for 17%.

Indian turmeric is considered the best in the world market because of its high curcumin content. India exported 5150 tonnes of turmeric valued at Rs.164.80 crores during 2006-07. From India’s total turmeric exports, 65% exported to UAE, USA, Japan, Srilanka, UK, and Malaysia. The institutional sector in the West buys ground turmeric and oleoresins, while dry turmeric is preferred by the industrial sector.

Turmeric is available in two seasons in India i.e.,February to May and August to October. The various varieties of turmeric that are traded in India are Allepey Finger ( Kerala), Erode Turmeric (Tamil Nadu), Salem Turmeric (Tamil Nadu), Rajapore Turmeric (Maharashtra), Sangli Turmeric (Maharashtra), Nizamabad Bulb ( Andhra Pradesh) etc. The major trading centers of turmeric are Nizamabad, Dugirala in Andhra Pradesn, Sangli in Maharshtra and Salem, Erode, Dharmapuri and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu.

4. Organic farming :

Organic farming is a crop production method which encourages sustainable agriculture by enhancing the biological cycles in nature. It is targeted at producing healthy, nutritive, pollution free food maximising the use of on farm resources and minimising the use of off-farm resources. It seeks to avoid the use of chemical nutrients and pesticides. The guidelines for organic farming of spice crops is enclosed in Annexure I.

5. Organic production :

5.1 Climate and soil

Turmeric requires a warm and humid climate. It can be grown in diverse tropical conditions from sea level to 1500mm above MSL within a temperature range of 20-30°C with a rainfall of 1500 mm or more per annum or under irrigated conditions. Though turmeric thrives in different types of soil ranging from light black loam, red soils to clayey loams, rich loamy soils having natural drainage and irrigation facilities are the best. Turmeric cannot stand water stagnation or alkalinity.

Turmeric can be cultivated organically as an intercrop along with other crops provided that all the companion crops are also organically grown. In some areas, turmeric is grown as an intercrop with mango, jack and litchi and on the west coast with coconut and arecanut.

Often castor and pigeon pea are planted on the borders and on irrigation channels to provide shade

5.2 Rotation

Turmeric is grown in rotation with sugarcane, chilli, onion, garlic, elephant foot yam, vegetables, pulses, wheat, ragi and maize. It is cultivated as a subsidiary crop to ginger in some areas and in other areas with chilli and quick-growing vegetables.

5.3 Buffer zone

In order to cultivate turmeric organically a buffer zone of 25 to 50 feet shall be maintained if the neighbouing farms are non-organic. The produce from this zone shall not be treated as organic. Being an annual crop, turmeric requires a conversion period of two years.

5.4 Land preparation

While preparing the land, minimum tillage operations may be adopted. Beds of 15 cm height,1 m width and of convenient length may be prepared giving at least 50 cm spacing between beds. In the case of the irrigated crop, ridges and furrows are prepared and the rhizomes are planted in shallow pits on the top of the ridges. Spacing generally adopted is 45-60 cm between the ridges and 15-20 cm between the plants. Solarisation of beds is beneficial in checking the multiplication of pests and diseases causing organisms. The polythene sheets used for soil solarisation should be kept away safely after the work is completed.

5.5 Planting material

Carefully preserved seed rhizomes free from pests and diseases which are collected from organically cultivated farms should be used for planting. However, to begin with seed material from high yielding local varieties may be used in the absence of organically produced seeds. For sowing, both the mother - rhizomes and fingers are used. The fingers are cut into 4 - 5 cm long pieces, and the mother rhizomes are planted as such or split into two; each having at least one sound bud. The seed is sometimes sprouted under moist straw before sowing.

5.6 Varieties

A number of cultivars are available in the country and are known mostly by the name of the locality where they are cultivated. The cultivated varieties show considerable variation in size and colour of the rhizomes and curcumin content. More than 5 per cent curcumin content and lemon yellow, orange or orange yellow coloured turmeric powder are preferred in the international market. There are two dominant types of turmeric found on the world market: 'Madras', and 'Alleppey', both named after the regions of production in India. The orange-yellow flesh Alleppey turmeric is predominantly imported by the United States, where users prefer it as a spice and a food colorant. Alleppey turmeric contains about 3.5% to 5.5% volatile oils, and 4.0% to 7.0% curcumin. In contrast, the Madras type contains only 2% of volatile oils and 2% of curcumin. The Madras turmeric is preferred by the British and Middle Eastern markets for its more intense, brighter and lighter yellow color.

The Patna variety is noted for its deep colour. Of the two types cultivated in Maharashtra, 'Lokhandi' has bright coloured hard rhizomes and the other has light-coloured soft rhizomes. The popular commercial varieties in Andhra Pradesh are 'Duggirala' of Guntur and 'Tekurpeta' which has long, stout, smooth and hard fingers. 'Kasturi Pasupa' of the Godavari Delta, the 'Armoor' type of the Nizamabad area and the 'Chaya Pasupa' are the other important varieties of Andhra Pradesh. In Orissa important varieties cultivated are Roma, Suroma, Ranga and Rasmi. Lakadong variety of ginger is grown in Meghalaya and this variety is popular for high curcumin content of 5 to 5.05%.

5.7 Planting

At the time of planting 25 g powdered neem cake mix well with soil is applied in each pit taken at a spacing of 20-25 cm within and between rows. Seed rhizomes may be put in shallow pits and covered with well rotten cattle manure or compost mixed with Trichoderma (10 gm compost inoculated with Tricoderma). A seed rate of 1000 kg rhizomes is required for planting one acre of land. As an intercrop in a fruit-garden seed rate may be as low as 125 - 200 kg per acre. Turmeric can be planted during April-July with the receipt of pre monsoon showers.

5.8 Cultural practices

Mulching the beds with green leaves is an important practice beneficial to this crop when planting is done on raised beds. This helps to enhance germination of seed rhizomes, prevents wash off of soil due to heavy rains, adds organic matter to the soil and conserves moisture during the dry period. Care may be taken to include a mix of leguminous crops with leaves rich in nitrogen content, phosphorus content like Acalypha weed and potassium content like Calotropis as mulch. The first mulching is to be done at the time of planting with green leaves @ 4-5 tonnes per acre. It is to be repeated again @ 2 tonnes / acre at 50th day after planting. Cow dung slurry may be poured on the bed after each mulching to enhance microbial activity and nutrient availability. Weeding may be carried out depending on the intensity of weed growth. Such materials may be used for mulching. Proper drainage channels are to be provided in the inter rows to drain off stagnant water.

5.9 Manuring

Turmeric needs heavy manuring. Application of well rotten cow dung or compost from own farm @2-3 tonne /acre may be given as basal dose while planting rhizomes in the pits. In addition, application of neem cake @ 0.8 tonnes/ acre is also desirable.

5.10 Plant protection

The underlying approach for pest and disease management under organic production is based on a range of preventive and other management strategies to minimize the incidence of pests and diseases. Regular field surveillance, adoption of phyto sanitary measures combined with understanding the life cycles of both pest and its predators will allow decisions to be made regarding the need to intervene for managing the pest population.

5.10.1 Pests

If shoot borer incidence is noticed, such shoots may be cut open and larve picked out and destroyed. If necessary neem oil 0.5% may be sprayed at fortnightly intervals.

5.10.2 Diseases

No major disease is noticed in turmeric. Leaf spot and leaf blotch can be controlled by restricted use of Bordeaux mixture 1%. Application of Trichoderma at the time of planting can check the incidence of rhizome rot.

5.11 Harvesting and curing

The crop has to be harvested at the right maturity and is ready for harvesting in about 7 to 9 months after sowing depending upon the variety. The aromatic types mature in about 7 months, the intermediate types in about 8 months and the late types in about 9 months.

Usually the land is ploughed and the rhizomes are gathered by hand picking or the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade. Harvested rhizomes are cleaned of mud and other extraneous matter adhering to them. The average yield per acre is 8 -10 tonnes of green turmeric.

Fingers are separated from mother rhizomes. Mother rhizomes are usually kept as seed material. The green turmeric is cured for obtaining dry turmeric. Curing involves boiling of rhizomes in fresh water and drying it in the sun. No chemical should be used for processing. The cleaned rhizomes are boiled in copper or galvanized iron or earthen vessels, with water just enough to soak them. Boil till the fingers/mother rhizomes become soft. The cooked turmeric is taken out of the pan by lifting the troughs and draining the water into the pan itself. The same hot water in the pan can be used for boiling the next lot of raw turmeric which is already filled in the troughs. Alternatively, rhizomes may also be cooked using baskets with perforated bottom and sides. The mother rhizomes and the fingers are cured separately. The cooking of turmeric is to be done within 2-3 days after harvest.

The cooked fingers/mother rhizomes are spread on bamboo mats or cement floor under the sun for drying. The rhizomes are spread in 5-7 cm thick layers for desirable colour of the dried product. During night time the material should be heaped or covered. It may take 10-15 days for the rhizomes to become completely dry. Artificial drying using cross-flow hot air at a maximum temperature of 60°C is also found to give a satisfactory product. In the case of sliced turmeric, artificial drying has a clear advantage giving brighter coloured product than sun drying which tends to suffer from surface bleaching. The recovery of dry product varies from 20-25% depending upon the variety and the location where the crop is grown. Dried turmeric has a poor appearance and rough dull colour outside the surface with scales and root bits. Smoothening and polishing the outer surface by manual or mechanical rubbing improves the appearance.

Manual polishing consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface. The improved method is by using hand-operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum. The turmeric is also polished in power-operated drums. The colour of the turmeric always attracts the buyers. In order to impart attractive yellow colour, turmeric suspension in water is added to the polishing drum in the last 10 minutes. When the rhizomes are uniformly coated with suspension they may be dried in the sun.

5.12 Preservation of seed

Rhizomes for seed are generally heaped under the shade of trees or in well-ventilated sheds and covered with turmeric leaves. Sometimes, the heap is plastered over with earth mixed with cow dung. The seed rhizomes can also be stored in pits with sawdust. The pits can be covered with wooden planks with one or two holes for aeration.

5.13 Yield

The yield of pure crop varies from 8000 to 10000 kg per acre. Under exceptionally favourable conditions, viz. abundant manuring and copious irrigation it may be as high as 12000 kg per acre.

6. Linkages :

Spices Board supports production, processing, certification and marketing of organic spices. Assistance is provided for organic cultivation of turmeric in select states. Spices Board has also programmes to encourage production of Lakadong turmeric in the North Eastern States. Spices Board has been designated as one of the agencies empowered to accredit certification agencies. Spices Board is also implementing the scheme for Export Oriented Production during the XI Plan where in assistance is being provided for promotion of organic turmeric under various programmes as indicated in Annexure II

7. Financial aspects :

7.1 Sale price

The farm gate price of cured turmeric has been considered at Rs.25/kg.

7.2 Cost of cultivation

The cost of cultivation for 1.0 acre organic turmeric cultivation is Rs 34800/- per acre. The detailed cost of cultivation is given in Annexure -III.

7.3 Margin

The percentage of margin / down payment to cost of development prescribed is 5, 10 and 15% for small, medium and large farmers respectively. The rest of the cost of development will be provided as bank loan. Margin considered in the present model is 10%.

7.4 Bank loan

Bank loan of 85 - 95 % shall be available from the financing institution. Bank loan considered in the model is 90%.

7.5 Rate of interest

The rate of interest to be charged to the ultimate borrower would be guided by RBI guidelines issued from time to time. However, the ultimate lending rate has been considered as 12 % for working out the bankability of the model scheme.

7.6 Security

Banks are guided by RBI guidelines issued from time to time in this regard.

8. Conclusion

The net income from organic cultivation and curing of turmeric is Rs. 23900/-. The activity is technically feasible, financially viable and bankable.

Teak Forestry on Wasteland

Teak

Introduction

Teak ( Tectona grandis ) is the most prized timber tree of India. It can be grown in almost every part of the country except the dry western zone, although the best teak forests develop in well drained deep alluvial soil. Teak timber fetches very high price because of its grain, colour and strength. Hence teak plantations have been raised for industrial purposes since long. Infact in India regular teak plantations were started as early as in the year 1842. Mr. Chatu Menon of Malabar in Kerala is considered to be the father of Indian Teak Plantations. Between the year 1842 - 1862 he had raised more than a million teak trees. The best quality teak growing areas in India are in the central parts of the country, hence the brand name CP Teak was assigned to the top quality teak produced from the present state of Madhya Pradesh.

2. Distribution

The distribution of teak is largely determined by climate, geology and soil. Teak occurs naturally in portions of India, Burma, Laos, Indonesia (mainly Java) and Thailand. Teak has also been introduced in countries like Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda, Ivory coast, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, West Indies, Honduras and Panama.

In India, it is naturally distributed mainly in the peninsular region, but has also been planted in non-traditional areas in northern and north eastern states. It is one of the most important hardwoods of the world and used for furniture, cabinet making, various grades of plywood, paneling, all types of construction, poles, piles, ship building and other purposes.

3. Agro-climatic requirements

Teak prefers moist, warm tropical climate. It can withstand extremes of temperature, but maximum & minimum shade temperatures of 39- 44oC and 13 - 17oC respectively are the most favourable for its growth. It grows well in rainfall zone of 1200-2500 mm. It prefers a deep, fertile, well-drained soil. The sandy soil is considered to be the best soil texture for this tree. It fails to grow in the soil with pH below 6.5.

3.1 Planting units

The number of plants to be planted by each farmer will depend upon extent of area and type of planting e.g. block or bund planting. The optimum spacing for block planting is 2 x 2 m accommodating 2500 plants per ha. On similar basis, the spacing of plants can be kept at 2 m in rows, in bund plantations. The minimum planting area for block plantation should be 0.2 ha or 500 trees per unit.

3.2 Nursery technology

Teak fruit /seed bears a thick, hard and fleshy cover of mesocarp. The mesocarp is responsible for inhibition of seed germination. Teak fruits are therefore, subjected to various treatment methods before being sown in the nursery beds to get high germination percentage. Various methods of pre-treatment have been developed and are traditionally in practice; the simplest one being alternate soaking & drying. In pit method, fruit mesocarp is subjected to decay by burying them in pits with cowdung slurry for three weeks. Acid treatment to burn mesocarp is another method. Nowadays a mechanical simple device has been evolved, a prototype-II. It is a simple machine, on the pattern of an ordinary flour-mill, and very easy to handle.

The plants are raised by sowing fruits in the nursery beds. Approximately 2000 - 3000 fruits (1 - 4 seeds per fruit) weigh 1 kg. Fruit treatment by alternate soaking and drying in open bed for 3 weeks hastens germination. Optimum sowing time is from April to May. Germination takes place within 30 - 40 days. Germination percentage varies from 60 - 80 . Irrigation 2 - 3 times a day initially is necessary. Seedlings when 12 - 15 month old with collar diameter of about 2.5 to 4.0 cm. are used for preparation of stumps for planting.

3.3 Planting Stocks

It is advisable to raise nursery seedlings after collecting fruits only from plus trees i.e., phenotypically selected superior trees. In olden days teak fruits used to be collected from any easily available tree, but nowadays with awareness of genetic gain from phenotypic selections, fruits are collected from genetically superior plus trees. Hence fruits should be obtained from Forest Departments / or Forest Development Corporations. For eg., Forest Development Corporation of Maharashtra (FDCM) has established seed orchards where genetically improved quality seeds are produced. Fruits obtained from such seed orchards will give better yield. One must be aware that in case of teak plantations any mistake in selection of planting stock may give a negative impact on the plantation which would be known after 10 years or more. So, selection of planting stock is the most important criterion in raising forestry plantations especially teak

3.4 Planting Methods

1. Teak can be planted at 2m x 2m, 2.5m x 2.5m or 3m x 3m espacement. It can also be raised along with agricultural crops at a spacing of 4m x 4m or 5m x 5m.
2. Plough lands thoroughly and level it off. Mark the areas for pit digging by alignment and staking.
3. Dig pits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm sizes. Refill the soil after seasoning and mixing with Farm Yard Manure and insecticides. On poor gravely sites, replace the pit soil by good soil.
4. Use pre sprouted stumps or polypots for planting.
5. Best planting season is monsoon; preferably after the first shower.
6. Firm up the soil after planting and apply irrigation wherever necessary.
7. Apply 100 g of fertiliser in pit at the time of planting and thereafter in split doses or as per the fertility status of soil.
8. Carry out weeding operations regularly. Weeding may be carried out @ 3 operations in the first year, 2 operations in second year and one operation in the third year.
9. Carry out soil working periodically for better growth of plants. One working in the Ist year and two workings in 2nd and 3rd year may be adequate.
10. Debudding in the initial years may be done to improve the quality of timber.
11. Undertake prophylactic and control measures for protection of plants from insects/pests and diseases to ensure good health of the crop.

3.5 Irrigation

Study has revealed that, irrigation during stress period boosts the growth of the plants. Irrigation should be followed by weeding (3,2,1) and adequate soil working. Two doses of fertiliser (in the month of August & September) @ 50 gm per plant of NPK (15:15:15) may be provided every year upto three years. By increasing the inputs of irrigation and frequent thinning, it is possible to increase the rate of diameter growth. The increase in diameter growth is, however, dependent on increasing the size of the crown i.e. decrease in the number of trees per acre. In other words, one can have either lesser no. of trees of higher girth or larger number of trees of lower girth. It has been observed that teak trees grown under irrigated condition grew faster but the sapwood content of trees increased, the wood became weak and wind damage became quite serious. A phenomenon of water blisters may also develop in teak trees grown under irrigated conditions. Such trees may appear quite healthy from outside but the inner heartwood may develop rot due to storage of excess water that increases the spread of fungi which may further damage the tree.

Many people claim that, teak grown with fertiliser and irrigation give excellent result. Drip irrigation will induce surface roots and epicormic branching. Nitrogen fertilisers will increase the nitrogen content of leaves. Initially larger leaves will increase photosynthesis and faster growth. By about five years the dreaded defoliators and skeletoniser Hyblaea puera and Eutectona machaeralis would attack these plantations. These will drastically reduce the photosynthesising leaf surface. These insects have about 14 life cycles in a year. The control through insecticides is not, therefore, possible. Once the trees are established they generally donot respond significantly to irrigation and fertilisers.

3.6 Insects, Pests and Diseases

Teak defoliator & skeletoniser (Hyblaea puera and Eutectona machaeralis) cause extensive damage to young plantations. Root rot due to Polyporous zonalis is also common in plantation. Pink disease fungus causes cankers and bark flaking. Powdery mildew caused by Olivea tectonae & Uncinula tectonae leads to premature defoliation. It is thus necessary to undertake prophylactic and control measures to ensure good health of the crops. Fresh leaf extracts of Calotropis procera, Datura metal and Azadirachta indica were found to be most effective against teak skeletonizer. This method is of immense importance in the insect, pest control considering its harmless and pollution free implications on the environment further avoiding the operational and residual hazards that involve in the use of organic and inorganic insecticides.

3.7 Harvesting, yield & Returns

The highest growth under plantation condition in India was seen in the Indo-Gangetic belt of Haldwani Division. At 20 years of age the height growth was 23.1m and diameter was 28.7 cm. From the general yield table in the first quality teak at 20 years of age, the average diameter is 27.2 cm and average height is 23.2m. The number of trees per acre is 102. The total yield of stem timber is 28.04 m3; that means on an average a tree on first quality site at 20 years of age under natural conditions of growth will yield around 0.283 m3 of timber on good sites. At the best we may expect a tree to produce a maximum of 0.60 m3 of timber in 20 years under best conditions of intensive management and there could be a maximum of 100 trees per acre.

It is said that plantation teak grows slowly after an age of 15 years and besides the strength is not as good as in case of naturally grown teak.

It is generally seen that the effect of irrigation and fertiliser application in most tree species is very fast initially and thereafter it slows down. Therefore, the initial response of fast growth which is being seen in the young plantation will not hold on for a long time. Under natural conditions the best growth has been seen on alluvial sites where the soils are very deep and moist, but not wet (Teak is very sensitive to poor drainage).

Normally, an irrigated plantation has been assumed to attain a growth in 20 years which is attained by a rainfed plantation in 25 years.

It takes roughly 20-30 years to produce reasonably good quality timber.

However, due to large market demand for teak, even the poles and small timber fetch good price. First thinning in 7th / 8th year and second thinning in 13th / 14th year may provide good number of poles and small timber to pay back the bank loan. In the final harvest by 20th year each tree can produce quality timber ranging from 7-10 cft. The yield and income are based on a conservative estimate.

3.8 Marketing of Timber

Teak is the most important commercial timber tree of India specially for furniture making. The very name of the tree translates into Carpenters Pride and is one of the most sought after timber in Indian market, hence no problem is envisaged in marketing by the farmers. Infact many of the timbers in Indian retail market is sold in the name of teak which are not teak. It is presumed that inspite of large number of plantations raised by the private companies the market for teak timber will remain evergreen. Today most of the teak timber available in the market is only of sapwood, the heart wood is rarely seen.


NB: Fuelwood in the form of lops & tops will be consumed locally by the farmer.
* Assumed Girth - 60 cm and Height - 13 m
** Assumed Girth - 75 cm & Height - 14 m

4.0 Cost of cultivation

The cost of cultivation will depend upon the extent of the area to be planted. The cost of cultivation for a unit area of one ha. at an espacement of 2m x 2m . i.e. 2500 plants/ ha. has been worked out at Rs. 67476/- for 7 years which is shown in the Annexure - I.

5.0 Financial Analysis

The financial analysis with the above parameters of the investment cost and yield has been done. The BCR and IRR works out to 1.46 : 1 and 23.57 % respectively.

6.0 Lending terms and conditions

6.1 Margin Money

The beneficiaries may contribute towards down payment ranging from 5 to 25% depending upon their category, i.e., small and other farmers in accordance with NABARD's norms. Beneficiary's own labour can also be taken as his contribution towards the margin money requirement. In the current model margin money of 10 % has been considered.

6.2 Interest Rate

The rate of interest on refinance from NABARD will be as per the circulars issued by NABARD from time to time. The rate of interest to be charged to the ultimate borrowers would be decided by the financing banks. Interest rate of 12 % per annum has been considered for calculation of financial parameters.

6.3 Repayment of Loan

The entire loan amount with interest can be repaid at the end of 7 years from planting. However, as there is no income generation during the first six years, the interest have to be deferred for first six years.

Forestry Wasteland

Neem - A Versatile Tree




Introduction

Neem (Azadirachta indica) belonging to meliaceae family is one of the most suitable and valuable tree species found in India. It can grow on wide range of soils upto pH 10 which makes it one of the most versatile and important trees in Indian sub-continent. Due to its multifarious uses, it has been cultivated by Indian farmers since vedic period and it has now become part of Indian culture. In India, it occurs throughout the country and can grow well in every agro-climatic zones except in high and cold regions and dam sites. In fact in India, Neem trees are often found growing scattered in the farmers fields and on the boundaries of fields without affecting the crops. Farmers practice this system just to meet the local demand for timber, fodder, fuelwood and also for various medicinal properties. Due to its deep tap root system, it does not compete with annual crops for scarce soil moisture.

Neem tree can be labelled as wonder tree for its multi purpose uses in real sense. This has been used as a medicinal plant for long time and provides almost all the requirements of rural areas - be the timber, fuelwood, fodder, oil, fertilizers, pest repellent or the ubiquitous 'datun'.

Today, it has been recognised as the most potential tree of India due to its evergreen nature (deciduous in drier areas) and ability to grow in even the most arid and nutrient deficient soils as well as for its many commercially exploitable by-products and environmentally beneficial characteristics (it has therefore been labelled as tree of the future). If plantation of this tree has to be taken up on large scale, it has to be integrated as an important component of agriculture under various agro-forestry systems.

It has been estimated that India's Neem bear about 3.5 million tonnes of Kernels every year. From this about 7 lakh tonnes of oil might be recovered. The annual production in the late 1980's was only around 1.5 lakhs tonnes. To increase the amount of oil harvesting, Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) has pioneered various aspects of processing the fruit and seeds of neems over the past two decades. The major difficulty as observed in most of the tree borne oil seeds including neem is that neem fruits must be harvested during the wet season. Without locally available drying facilities the fruit and seeds rapidly deteriorate and become contaminated with aflotoxin. Ideally, the fruits should be depulped without delay and the seeds have to be thoroughly dried. KVIC has popularised simple methods for depulping, drying and decorticating neem products even in the rearmost villages of the country. The sales and turnover of neem seeds in India has been estimated by various agencies. Based on random survey at major neem seeds market by independent agencies the quantity of neem seed sold during 1996 was 5.5 lakh tonnes with turnover of Rs.137 crores.

2.Distribution

It is grown from the southern tip of Kerala to the Himalayan hills in the tropical to sub tropical and semi arid to wet tropical regions and from the sea level to about 700 m elevation. It has been widely cultivated in India and African countries. In India, it occurs throughout the larger parts of the country in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. The tree is mostly evergreen except in dry localities where it becomes almost leafless for a short period during February - March and the new leaf appears immediately. Flowering spread over January - March in the southern parts of the country and later towards the north. Neem is a light demander and in the young stage it grows very fast. It is hardy but frost susceptible and cannot withstand excessive cold especially during seedling and sapling stage. In the international and national provenance trials raised by Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur it was observed that all neem trees had branches near the base because of frost damage. It coppices well and produces root suckers and withstands pollarding well.

3.Description of plant

A large evergreen tree, 12 to 18 meter in height and 1.8 to 2.4 meter in girth with a straight bole and long spreading branches forming a broad crown as much as 20 metres across, commonly found throughout greater parts of India.

Bark Grey or dark reddish brown with numerous and scattered tubercles. The bark exudes a gum known as East India gum. Leaves alternate 20 - 30 cm long, leaflets 8 - 19 alternate or opposite ovate glossy, bluntly serrate.

Flowers : white or pale yellow, small, scented, numerous on long axillary panicles, have a honey like scent and attract many bees.

Fruit : Fruit is a ovoid bluntly pointed, smooth drupe green when young and turns yellow with a very thin epicarp, mesocarp with scanty pulp and a hard bony endocarp, enclosing one seed.

The timber is relatively heavy with a specific gravity varying from 0.56 to 0.85 (average 0.68) when freshly cut, it has a strong smell.

The flowering season of neem varies from place to place. Generally it flowers from January to May and the ripening time of fruits is from May to August. The fruit pulp is edible.

4. Uses

Neem extracts are used as insecticides, pesticides and fungicides. Neem oil has antibacterial, antiviral properties and used in skin and dental problems. Neem products are being used for malaria, fever, pain and also as contraceptive. Neem is also being used in cosmetics, lubricants and fertilisers. Neem bark is used in villages for rope making. Neem oil is used in soap manufacture.

5. Agro-climatic Requirements

It generally performs well on areas with annual rainfall varying from 400 - 1200 mm. It thrives under the hottest conditions where maximum day temperature reaches 50oC. But it cannot withstand freezing or extended cold.

5.1 Soil

Neem grows on almost all kinds of soils including clayey, saline and alkaline soils but does well on black cotton soils. It thrives better than most other trees on dry stony saline soils with a waterless sub-soil or in places where there is a hard calcareous or clay pan near the surface. It does not tolerate inundation. It has a unique property of calcium mining which changes the acidic soil into neutral. Neem also grows well on some acidic soil. It is said that the fallen neem leaves which are slightly alkaline are good for neutralising acidity in the soil.

5.2 Nursery Practices

Nursery Site : Nursery could be either a temporary or permanent one. Site in either case should have a perennial water source and located on a flat ground with well drained soil. On a hilly site, a moderate slope preferably on the northern aspect has to be chosen.

5.3 Seed collection and storage

Only fruits at the yellow green colour stage are pricked from the branches.The collected fruits are depulped immediately. Soaking in cold water for a few hours helps in removing pulp. Storing neem seed for 5 months at 40% natural moisture content at 16 degree centigrade is possible. For short storage the seeds are closed in polythene bags and exposed to air once in a week to keep them viable. Long term storage of Neem seeds for more than 10 years is done at 4% moisture content and -20o Centigrade temperature. Storage of seed in earthen pot containing wet sand (30% moisture) helps to retain viability upto 60% at the end of 3 months. On an average 5000 seeds weigh one kilogram.

5.4 Sowing of Seeds

Germination rate of Neem varies between 15% (stored seeds) and 85% (fresh seeds). Hence, to ensure higher viability of the seeds, their immediate sowing in nursery is recommended. Pre-soaking the seed for 24 hours in cold water and removal of the endocarp or cutting of the seed coat at the round end with a sharp knife also increase its germination capacity.

Sowing of seeds in nursery beds made up of fine river sand is done in drills 15 c/m apart. Seeds are sown 2.5 cms deep at distance of 2 to 5 cms in the lines and lightly covered with earth to safeguard against birds and insects which often eat radicles of the germinated seeds on the surface. The beds are sparingly watered to prevent caking. Alternatively seeds can be sown directly into pots. Germination occurs in 1/2 weeks time. Once the hypocotyl is erect the seedling is transplanted into the containers. Seeds are sown 3 / 4 months before planting date. Potting mix comprises of 50% sandy loam, 40% river sand and 10% compost by volume.

5.5 Pricking

Seedlings are pricked out at 15 cms x 15 cms when about 2 months old. They do not require any shade. Soil working and weeding are very beneficial. In frosty localities plants are protected by means of screen. When the seedlings are 7 to 10 cm tall with tap root about 15 cm long, these are transplanted with balls of earth around them. In dry areas, it is necessary to plant larger seedlings of at least 45 cm height since smaller ones are unable to tide over the drought period. This is the reason why seedlings are kept in the nursery beds for another year before planting in the next range.

5.6 Planting Techniques

Neem can be easily raised through direct sowing, entire / polypot seedlings or root-shoot cuttings. For degraded areas direct sowing is more successful. Entire / polypot seedlings or root-shoot cuttings are more relevant for agro-forestry / silvi pasture and road side avenue plantations. Direct sowing is done either by dibbling in bushes, broadcast sowing, line sowing, sowing on mounds or ridges, sowing in trenches in sunken beds in circular saucers or by aerial sowing. The choice varies with edaphic, climatic, biotic and economic conditions of the site. Planting in pits is carried out by using 20 to 45 cms tall seedlings. Taller ones promise better survival. Planting of stumps prepared from a year old seedlings in crowbar holes also gives good results.

5.6.1 Entire / polypot planting

Seedlings which have attained 20-25 cm height by the beginning of the rainy season are planted out in pits of 30 cu. cm at a spacing of 3x3 mtrs. or any other spacing depending on the purpose of plantation. Pruning of leaves except at the tip and roots has been proved successful in Nagpur district of Maharashtra. In Tamilnadu, plants of 45 cm height are used for this purpose, since smaller plants are found incapable of bearing the stress of drought period. Planting is, however, done during the rainy season.

5.6.2 Planting Root-shoot cuttings

The stumps are prepared from 12-13 months old seedlings, keeping 2.5 cm of shoot portion and 23 cm of root and are planted in crow bar holes at the break of rains. In Tamilnadu stumps from two years old plants have given higher survival and better height growth than one year old root stock. 53% success from root-shoot cuttings has been reported from Maharashtra. The success of root-shoot cuttings depends upon rains, prolonged drought may affect survival to a great extent.

5.7 Farm forestry plantations

For raising a block plantation under farm forestry a closer spacing of 5mx5m accommodating 400 trees per ha may be followed. This may vary from field to field and also depending upon the objective. The wider spacing of 7mx7m accommodating about 200 trees per hectare may be on the broader side where Agro-forestry can also be practised.

5.8 Viable unit for small farmers

At least 100 trees should be raised by the farmers interested to avail of micro credit. For this about 1 acre land is required.

5.9 Care of Young Plantation

Strip weeding of young plantations has a positive effect on health and survival. Two weedings are sufficient in the first year and one weeding during the second year. First mechanical thinning in the case of transplanted seedlings is done at the age of 5 years. In arid region Neem planted along the canals are watered for the first 5-7 years.

5.10 Plantation Growth

The rate of growth of Neem in plantation varies with the quality of soil. It is fairly rapid upto the age of 5 years after which it slows down. The plant attains a height of 4 m at 5 years and 10 m at 25 years. The mean annual girth increment is 2.3-3.0 cm. More rapid growth is attained under favourable conditions. In Karnataka naturally grown Neem trees of 10 years age give an average height of 6.58 m and girth of 68.1 cm.

In alkaline soils of U.P., Neem attains an average height of 170 cm at the end of first season and 264 cm at second season. Seven month old root suckers give the average height of 65.7 cm. Because of its international importance, there have been many provenance trials at several places. In 1993, the first international consultation on Neem was held in Bangkok where a panel was formed to aid and co-ordinate the work for genetic improvement of Neem. At Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur in 1992 a provenance trial of the Indian Provenances of Neem was established in the experimental fields. The provenance trial was supported with additional investigations like the seed characteristics and storage priorities of Neem seed. The trial which is established very well at Jodhpur, consists of 40 provenance representing 10 states of India wherein effort has been made to successfully represent other agro-climatic zones of India. Preliminary results on the trials have indicated that there is immense variation and hence, scope of selection and breeding for genetic improvement of Neem. The Institute hopes to utilise both sexual and asexual methods of selective propagation.

5.11 Plant Protection

Pests & Diseases: Tip borer (Laspeyresia koenigiana), Tea mosquito bug (Heliopeltis antonii) affect seedlings and young plants. Pulvinaris maxima is a scale insect now regarded as key pest & Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis a potential pest of neem.

Neem seedlings get severely affected by damping off Rhizoctonia leaf web blight, leaf spot & blights induced by Colletotrichum, Alternaria & Pseudocercospora.

5.12 Environment

Considering the versatile nature, uses & growing global importance of neem the United Nations declared it as the "Tree of the twenty first century". Its large scale production promises to help alleviate several global environmental problems : deforestation, desertification, soil erosion & perhaps even global warming (If planted on a truly large scale). Its extensive, deep root seems to be remarkably effective at extracting nutrients from poor soils. Large scale neem plantations can help in rehabilitation of degraded forest lands & vast tracts of wastelands & greening the environment.

5.13 Neem in Agro-forestry

The tree component in the agro-forestry systems is preferred to be of local use, easily marketable with good economic value. Although Neem is not considered as the best tree species under agro-forestry systems nevertheless, in many parts of India it has been found to be suitable as agro-forestry species. In semi-arid conditions at Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi, Neem alongwith other tree species increased the productivity of a silvicultural system upto 8.5 tonne / hectare. It has been reported that the fodder production can be increased from 0.5 to 3.6 tonne / hectare in arid zone of Thar Desert by growing suitable grasses and legumes along with Neem and several other tree species.

5.14 Neem as a Timber Tree

Neem is a large ever green tree 15 to 20 M. high with semi-straight and straight trunk 30 to 80 cm in diameter and spreading branches forming a broad crown. It has a long life of 100 years. Neem tree has several economic advantages over other multi-purpose tree species grown in India. Although the main use of the tree is for production of seeds for extracting oil, the tree can be harvested for timber after 35 to 40 years of planting. The sap wood of Neem is greyish white and heart wood is red to reddish brown resembling Mahogany. The wood is aromatic moderately heavy with uneven grains, durable and not easily attacked by insects. Timber is medium refractory and seasons well even when sawn wet. It is easy to work with the timber but does not take good polish.

Wood is used for building houses, as posts, beams, door / window frames, furniture, carts, axles, yorks, ship and boat building, helms & oars, oil mills, cigar boxes, carved images, toys and agricultural implements.

5.15 Harvesting, Yield & Returns

Neem starts bearing fruits after 5 years and comes to full bearing at the age of 10-12 years. Fruit yield is 5-20 kg per tree per year in the initial years. A mature tree produces 35-50 kg fruit/year. Oil yield varies from 40-43% of seed on dry weight basis. Highest oil content has been reported from Banswara region of Rajasthan (43.2%), while the lowest oil yield of 32.4% has been reported from Jaisalmer region. It has been observed that as rainfall in an area increases oil content also increases. Among the International provenances tested, Bangladesh provenance has yielded maximum oil content (48.6%). However we presume a conservative yield of 5,6,10,15, 20 kg/tree respectively from 5th year onwards. Yield generally stabilises from 9th year. Sale price of the seed may be considered @ Rs.5/kg.

Irrigating the young stock, keeping the field clear from competing weeds & soil loosening have been reported to produce good results in neem.

Neem seed price is projected to be Rs.10000 / ton in the near future. So, it is high time to exploit the potential of this hitherto neglected tree & to manage neem for higher economic returns to farmers. It has been estimated that 10 yr old tree can yield a timber of 5-6 c.ft / tree.

6. Export Potential

Among the forest produce, Neem is perhaps the only tree that has potential of producing several items that can be exported, besides of course few medicinal plants obtained from forest. That is why many developed countries like USA, Japan, Germany, France and Netherlands which do not possess much Neem wealth have developed research laboratories exclusively for Neem. On the contrary, India has a very high resources of Neem wealth with millions of trees scattered throughout the country but we are yet to start Neem research systematically except that some sporadic research are being carried out in several laboratories.

Main active principle of Neem is Azadirachtin which is obtained from open column chromatography or pressure liquid chromatography. Maximum yield from Neem seeds is 3 gm. Azadirachtin per kg of Neem seeds. Neem is advocated to be a potential export item, yet not much attention has been paid to the tree for its improvement specially on per kg. yield of Azadirachtin and other components. In India, Neem cultivation is still in its infancy. Few plantations have been raised here and there. Whatever Neem seeds are available; those are collected from individual trees through unorganised sector. Hence, it is highly advocated that government organisations like ICFRE, ICAR, Agricultural Universities and NGOs must come forward to undertake coordinated research on all aspects of the tree and its products to reap the benefits from huge export market.

7. Economics of cultivation

The cost of cultivation will depend upon the extent of the area to be planted. The cost of cultivation for one hectare at spacing of 5mx5m i.e. 400 plants/ha has been worked out at Rs. 20700 / ha which is given in Annexure – I. The yield and income from Neem cultivation are given in Annexure – II along with techno-economic parameters.

8. Financial Analysis

The financial analysis with the above parameters of the investment cost and techno-economic parameters, the IRR works out to 30.48 % which is given in Annexure - III.

9. Lending Terms and Conditions

9.1 Margin Money

NABARD stipulates beneficiaries' contribution to the project cost in order to ensure his stake in the involvement. Such margin money varies from 5% to 25% depending upon the type of investment and the class of borrowers. In the current model project margin money of 10 % has been considered.

9.2. Interest Rate

The rate of interest to the ultimate borrowers will be decided by the financing banks which are subjected to revise by RBI / NABARD from time to time. In the present scheme, we have considered interest rate of 12 % per annum.

9.3. Repayment of Loan

The loan would be repaid in an annual graded instalments with a moratorium / grace period of 5 years. The entire loan amount with interest can be repaid in 10years from planting. The repayment schedule has been worked out and given in Annexure IV.

Animal Husbandry

Commercial Piggery



1. WHY DO PIG FARMING?

The challenges faced by our country in securing the food as well as nutritional security to fast growing population need an integrated approach for livestock farming. Among the various livestock species, piggery is most potential source of meat production and more efficient feed converters after the broiler. Apart from providing meat, it is also a source of bristles and manure. Pig farming will provide employment opportunities to seasonally employed rural farmers and supplementary income to improve their living standards. The advantages of the pig farming are :
1. The pig has got highest feed conversion efficiency i.e. they produce more live weight gain from a given weight of feed than any other class of meat producing animals except broilers.
2. The pig can utilise wide variety of feed stuffs viz. grains, forages, damaged feeds and garbage and convert them into valuable nutritious meat. However, feeding of damaged grains, garbage and other unbalanced rations may result in lower feed efficiency.
3. They are prolific with shorter generation interval. A sow can be bred as early as 8-9 months of age and can farrow twice in a year. They produce 6-12 piglets in each farrowing.
4. Pig farming requires small investment on buildings and equipments
5. Pigs are known for their meat yield, which in terms of dressing percentage ranges from 65 - 80 in comparison to other livestock species whose dressing yields may not exceed 65%.
6. Pork is most nutritious with high fat and low water content and has got better energy value than that of other meats. It is rich in vitamins like thiamin, Niacin and riboflavin.
7. Pigs manure is widely used as fertilizer for agriculture farms and fish ponds.
8. Pigs store fat rapidly for which there is an increasing demand from poultry feed, soap, paints and other chemical industries.
9. Pig farming provides quick returns since the marketable weight of fatteners can be achieved with in a period of 6-8 months.
10. There is good demand from domestic as well as export market for pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lard etc.

2. SCOPE FOR PIG FARMING AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL
ECONOMY

2.1 The pig population of the country is 12.79 million as per the 1992 livestock census and 13.291 million as per 1997 provisional result of census from states and constitutes around 1.30% of the total world's population. The state wise pig population are given in Annexure I . The pork production stands at 4.20 lakh tonnes (1995). During 2001-02 the production of pork and pork products were estimated to be 612550 mt with 3.03% growth rate in last decade. If comprised over 38% of the total world meat product Indian share in piggary meat production moderately increased from 0.53%in 1981 to 0.63 in 2002. The contribution of pork products in terms of value works out to 0.80% of total livestock products and 4.32% of the meat and meat products. The contribution of pigs to Indian exports is very poor. About 934 tonnes of pork and pork products were exported during 1995-96. The value of pork and pork products exported is Rs. 262 lakhs against the total value of Rs. 61604 lakhs on account of meat and meat products export.
2.2 The pig farming constitutes the livelihood of rural poor belonging to the lowest socio-economic strata and they have no means to undertake scientific pig farming with improved foundation stock, proper housing, feeding and management. Therefore, suitable schemes to popularise the scientific pig breeding cum rearing of meat producing animals with adequate financial provisions are necessary to modernise the Indian pig industry and to improve the productivity of small sized rural pig farms.
2.3 In view of the importance of pig farming in terms of it's contribution to rural poor and possible potentials for pig rearing in our country, Government of India has initiated measures to promote the pig farming on scientific lines under it's five year plans. The first step towards this direction is establishment of eight bacon factories and organisation of pig production in rural areas attached to bacon factories. In order to make available good foundation stock, regional pig breeding stations were established for each bacon factory. Further expansion of pig breeding programmes paved the way for establishment of 115 pig breeding farms (1992-93) through out the country. The location of bacon factories and pig breeding farms are given in Annexures II and III respectively.

3 FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE AVAILABLE FROM BANKS / NABARD FOR
PIG FARMING

3.1 NABARD is an apex institution for all matters relating to policy, planning, and operations in the field of agriculture credit. It serves as refinance agency for the ground level institutions / banks providing investment and production credit for various activities under agriculture and allied sectors for ensuring integrated rural development. It co-ordinates the development activities through a well organised Technical Services Department at the head office and Technical cells at each of the regional offices.
3.2 For undertaking the pig farming on scientific lines, loan from banks with refinance facility from NABARD is available. For obtaining bank loan the farmers / entrepreneurs should apply to the nearest branch of a Commercial, Co-operative or Regional Rural Bank in the prescribed application form, which is available in the branches of financing bank. Necessary help or guidance can be obtained from the technical officer attached to or the manager of the bank in preparing the project report, which is a prerequisite for sanction of the loan.
3.3 For piggery development schemes with very large outlays, detailed project reports will have to be prepared. The items such as land development, construction of sheds and other civil structures, purchase of the breeding stock, equipment, feed cost upto the point of income generation are normally considered under bank loan. Other items of investment will be considered on need basis after providing the satisfactory information justifying the need for such items. The cost of land is not considered for loan. However, if land is purchased for setting up the piggery farm exclusively, it can be considered as beneficiaries margin money.

4. SCHEME FORMULATION

In case of commercial piggery units, the banks are expected to submit a project for availing the refinance. The scheme normally should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government Regional Pig breeding centres.
The scheme should also include information on the number of and types of animals to be purchased, their breeds, production performance, cost and other relevant input and output costs with their description. Based on this, the total cost of the project, margin money to be provided by the beneficiary, requirement of bank loan, estimated annual expenditure, income, profit and loss statement, repayment period, etc. can be worked out and included in the project cost.

5. REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD PROJECT

A format prepared by NABARD for formulation of piggery development schemes is given in Annexure IV. The scheme so formulated should be submitted to the nearest branch of bank. The bank's officers can assist in preparation of the scheme or filling in the prescribed application form. The bank will then examine the scheme for its technical feasibility and economic viability.

A) Technical Feasibility - This would briefly include :

1. Nearness of the selected area to financing bank's branch.
2. Availability of good quality animals in nearby livestock markets/ breeding farms.
3. Source and availability of training facilities.
4. Availability of concentrate feeds and kitchen/ hotel/ vegetable market waste and broken grains from Food corporation godowns.
5. Availability of medicines, vaccines and veterinary services etc.
6. Availability of veterinary aid / breeding centres and marketing facilities near the scheme area.
7. Reasonability of various production and reproduction parameters.

B) Economic Viability - This would briefly include :

1. Unit cost - The average cost of piggery breeding stock for some of the States is given in Annexure V.
2. Input cost for feeds, veterinary aid, insurance, labour charges, etc.
3. Output costs i.e. sale price of fatteners, piglets and culled animals
4. Income-expenditure statement and annual gross surplus.
5. Cash flow analysis.

C. Bankability :

Repayment schedule (i.e. repayment of principal loan amount and interest.)
Other documents such as loan application forms, security aspects, margin money requirements etc. are also examined. A field visit to the scheme area is undertaken for conducting a techno- economic feasibility study for appraisal of the scheme. The economics of piggery unit is given in Annexure VIa- VIf.

6. SANCTION OF BANK LOAN AND ITS DISBURSEMENT

After ensuring technical feasibility and economic viability, the scheme is sanctioned by the bank. The loan is disbursed in stages against creation of specific assets such as construction of sheds, purchase of equipments and animals. The end use of the fund is verified and constant follow-up is done by the bank.

7. LENDING TERMS - GENERAL

7.1 Unit cost
Each Regional Office (R.O) of NABARD has constituted a State Level Unit Cost Committee under the chairmanship of RO- in-charge and with the members from developmental agencies, commercial banks and cooperative banks to review the unit cost of various investments once in six months. The same is circulated among the banks for their guidance.

7.2 Margin Money

NABARD has defined farmers into three different categories and where subsidy is not available, the minimum down payment as shown below is collected from the beneficiaries.

Sr.No. Category of Farmer Beneficiary's Contribution
a) Small farmers 5%
b) Medium farmers 10%
c) Large farmers 15%
7.3 Interest Rate for ultimate borrower
Banks are free to decide the role of interest within the overall RBI guidelines. However, for working out the financial viability and bankability of the model project we have assumed the rate of interest as 12% p.a.
7.4 Security
Security will be as per NABARD/RBI guidelines issued from time to time.
7.5 Repayment Period of Loan
Repayment period depends upon the gross surplus in the scheme. The loans will be repaid in suitable half yearly/annual instalments usually within a period of about 5-6 years with a grace period of one year.
7.6 Insurance
The animals may be insured annually or on long term master policy, where ever it is applicable. The present premium rate for non IRDP schemes is 6% per annum.
8. PACKAGE OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES RECOMMENDED FOR
COMMERCIAL PIG FARMING
Modern and well established scientific principles, practices and skills should be used to obtain maximum economic benefits from pig farming. Some of the major norms and recommended practices are given hereunder:
I. Housing management:
1. Construct shed on dry and properly raised ground.
2. Avoid water-logging, marshy and heavy rainfall areas.
3. The side walls of the sheds should be 4-5 ft. high and remaining height should be fitted with GI pipes or wooden poles.
4. The walls should be plastered to make them damp proof.
5. The roof should be atleast 8-10 ft. high.
6. The pig stys should be well ventilated.
7. The floor should be pucca/hard, even, non-slippery, impervious, well sloped (3 cm per metre) and properly drained to remain dry and clean.
8. A feed trough space of 6-12 inches per pig should be provided.
9. The corners of feed troughs, drains and walls should be rounded for easy cleaning.
10. Provide adequate open space for each animal i.e. double the covered area
11. Provide proper shade and cool drinking water in summer.
12. Dispose of dung and urine properly.
13. Individual pens for boars/lactating sows should be constructed.
14. The dry sows/fatteners can be housed in group pens.
15. Give adequate space for the animals. (The housing space requirement of pigs in various categories/age groups is given in Annexure VII).

II. Selection of breeding stock:
1. Immediately after release of the loan, purchase the stock from a reliable breeder or from nearest livestock market.
2. For commercial pig farming upgraded / cross bred or exotic stock in good health should be selected.
3. While selecting a gilt or sow primary aim should be to secure a female that will produce large survivable litter and which can attain marketable weight at an age of six months or less. This can be done with the help of pedigree records/Veterinarian / Bank's technical officer.
4. Purchase animals which are ready to be bred.
5. Identify the newly purchased animal by giving suitable identification mark (ear notching or tattooing).
6. Vaccinate the newly purchased animals against diseases.
7. Keep the newly purchased animal under observations for a period of about two weeks and then mix with the other animals.
8. Purchase a minimum economical unit as suggested.
9. Purchase animals in two batches at the interval of three months.
10. Follow judicious culling and replacement of animals in a herd.
11. Cull the old animals after 10-12 farrowings.

III. Feeding management:
1. Feed the animals with best feeds.
2. Give adequate concentrates in the ration.
3. Provide adequate vitamins and minerals.
4. Provide adequate clean water.
5. Give adequate exercise to the animals.
6. The feeding of the piglets is more critical and high quality and more fortified diets are needed for feeding them.
7. Feeding of the sows during pregnancy is utmost important for increased litter size.
8. The feed requirements of lactating sow varies with the size of the litter, weight, size and age of sow.
9. Commercial pig farming should aim at the exploitation of nonconventional feed resources viz., waste from Kitchen/hotel/ cold storage/warehouses, in replacing the balanced rations to minimise the cost of production.
10. The feeding regime adopted should take care of all the nutrient requirements of various categories of pigs. The nutrient requirements of breeding stock and growing pigs are given in Annexure VIIIa and VIIIb respectively.

IV. Protection against Diseases:
1. Be on the alert for signs of illness such as reduced feed intake, fever, abnormal discharge or unusual behaviour.
2. Consult the nearest veterinary aid centre for help if illness is suspected.
3. Protect the animals against common diseases.
4. In case of outbreak of contagious diseases, immediately segregate the sick and the healthy animals and take necessary disease control measures.
5. Deworm the animals regularly.
6. Examine the faeces of adult animals to detect eggs of internal parasites and treat the animals with suitable drugs.
7. Wash the animals from time to time to promote sanitation.
8. Strictly follow the recommended vaccine schedule as given in Annexure IX.

V. Breeding care:
1. Pigs are highly prolific in nature and two farrowings in a year should be planned by adopting optimal management conditions
2. For every 10 sows one boar must be maintained for maximum fertility.
3. Breed the animals when it is in peak heat period (i.e. 12 to 24 hours of heat).

VI. Care during Pregnancy:
Give special attention to pregnant sows one week before farrowing by providing adequate space, feed, water etc. The sows as well as farrowing pens should be disinfected 3-4 days before the expected date of farrowing and the sows should be placed in the farrowing pen after bedding it properly.
VII. Care of Piglets:
1. Take care of new born piglets by providing guard rails.
2. Treat / disinfect the navel cord with tincture of iodine as soon as it is cut with a sharp knife.
3. Feed on mothers milk for first 6-8 weeks along with creep feed.
4. Protect the piglets against extreme weather conditions, particularly during the first two months.
5. Needle teeth should be clipped shortly after birth.
6. Vaccinate the piglets as per recommended vaccination schedule.
7. Supplementation of Iron to prevent piglet anaemia is necessary.
8. The piglets meant for sale as breeder stock must be reared properly.
9. Male piglets not selected for breeding should be castrated preferably at the age of 3-4 weeks which will prevent the boar odour in the cooked meat thus it enables production of quality meat.
10. Additional feed requirements of lactating sow must be ensured for proper nursing of all the piglets born.

VIII. Marketing:
The marketable products of the piggery farming includes the piglets as breeding stock, piglets as fatteners, marketable fatteners and culls. The marketing avenues for the above products are like satellite fattening farms / breeding cum rearing farms and pork consumption centres. In order to promote the consumption of pork it should be supplied to the consumers in an attractive form. Therefore availability of either slaughtering facilities or bacon factories are to be ensured to convert the fatteners into wholesome pork and their products. The bacon factories that are being operated in our country are furnished in the annexure II . The sale of piglets at 2-3 months of age will yield quick returns and enables the pig farmer to concentrate their efforts on maximizing the productivity of breeder stock. The other marketing strategy can be rearing of piglets upto marketing age for their sale as fatteners. Based on the market demand appropriate marketing strategy must be adopted in consultation with the local animal husbandry department officials.

Annexure - I
State wise pig population in India (1997)
(In thousands)
Sl No. States/U.T.s Total
1 Andhra Pradesh 748
2 Arunachal Pradesh 249
3 Assam 1082
4 Bihar 924
5 Chattisgarh 456
6 Goa 105
7 Gujarat 198
8 Haryana 700
9 Himachal Pradesh 7
10 Jammu & Kashmir 12
11 Karnataka 405
12 Kerala 88
13 Madhya Pradesh 375
14 Maharashtra 567
15 Manipur 388
16 Meghalaya 351
17 Mizoram 163
18 Nagaland 571
19 Orissa 602
20 Punjab 96
21 Rajasthan 305
22 Sikkim 27
23 Tamil Nadu 609
24 Tripura 211
25 Uttar Pradesh 3135
26 Uttaranchal 32
27 West Bengal 805
Union Territories
28 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 43
29 Chandigarh 3
30 Dadra & N Haveli 0
31 Daman & Diu 0
32 Delhi 31
33 Lakshadweep 0
34 Pondicherry 1
All INDIA 13291
Note:- '—' indicates less than thousand.
Annexure - II
List of Bacon factories

S.No. State Capacity
(No. of Pigs/Days) Address
1 Uttar Pradesh 100 Bacon Factory
Central Dairy farm, Aligarh
2 West Bengal 20 Bacon Factory
Harringhatta - 721 436
Mohanpur, Nadia.
3 Andhra Pradesh 100 Government Bacon Factory,
Gannavaram-521101
Krishna Dist.
4 Bihar 50 Government Bacon Factory,
Kanke - 834005
Ranchi
5 Maharashtra 100 MAFCO Bacon Factory,
National Park,
Borivali, Mumbai-400 022
6 Rajasthan 50 Meat Complex,
Alwar-301001
7 Kerala 50 Meat Products of India,
Koothakulam - 686662
Ernakulam
8 Punjab 20 Pork processing plant,
Kharar\140301
Annexure - III
Statewise location of pig breeding farms

Sr.No. State Location of breeding farms
1 Andhra Pradesh Gannavaram, Gopannapalem, Muktalya, Padavagi, Tirupathi, Vishakapatnam
2 Arunachal Pradesh Karsingsa, Loiliang
3 Assam Diphu, Haflong, Kaliapani, Khanapara (University), Kanapara (ACRIP), Khanapara (Govt.), Khanikar, Marigoan
4 Bihar Gaurikarma, Hotwar, Jamshedpur, Kanke
5 Dadra & Nagar Haveli Port Silvasa
6 Goa Curti Ponda, Ela
7 Haryana Ambala City, Hissar
8 Karnataka Hassarghatta, Koila, Kudige
9 Kerala Ankamaly, Koothattukulam, Kunnamkulam, Mannuthy,Mundayal, Parasala, Thalayda Parambu
10 Madhya Pradesh Bastar, Jabalpur, Sakalo
11 Manipur None Tamenglong, Senepati North, Tarang, Torbumg
12 Meghalaya Baghmora, Dalu, Jowai, Mairang, Mawryngkneg, Nongstoin,Pynursla, Rongjeng, Rongkhon
13 Mizoram Kolasih, Lunglei, Selesih, Thenzawl
14 Nagaland Alukute, Medziphema, Merang, Phek, Suthazu, Tijit, Tunesand,
15 Orissa Bhaminagar, Chiplima
16 Punjab Badal, Chhaju Majra, Gurdaspur, Jalandar, Ludhiana, Maltowara,
17 Rajasthan Alwar, Bharatpur
18 Sikkim Gyalsing, Tadong
19 Tamil Nadu Chettinad, Hosur, Pudukottai, Saidpet, Udagamandalam

20 Tripura Amarpur, Birchandramanu, Gandhi Gram, Mendhihaor, Nabincherra, Nalkata

21 Uttar Pradesh Aligarh, Arzilins, Barabanki, Basti, Dehradun, Izzatnagar,Lalitpur, Moradabad, Nilgaon
22 West Bengal Bijanbari, Haringhatta, Pedong, Singruntaum, St. Mary's Hill Turki
Annexure IV
Format for submission of schemes
Scheme : Commercial Pig farming

Annexure VIII VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR PIGS
Sr.No. Name of disease Type of vaccine Time of vaccination Duration of immunity period Remarks
1 Anthrax Spore vaccine Once in a year, premonsoon vaccination One season
2 Hog Cholera Crystal Violet vaccine After weaning One year
3 Foot and mouth disease Polyvalent tissue culture vaccine At about six months of age with booster done after 4 months One season After vaccine repeat Vaccination every year in October/November
4 Swine Erysipelas Alum treated vaccine After weaning with a booster dose after 3-4 weeks About one year
5 Tuberculosis B.C.G vaccine At about six months of age One to two years To be repeated every 2 or 3 years